Precision farming in Indian Agricultural Scenario

Informations from:

Baburao Dashrath kamble
Remote Sensing and Geographic Information System.
School of Advanced Technologies
Asian Institute of Technology, Thailand
Tel: +66-2-524-7525 Fax: +66-2-524-5597
Email: baburaokamble@yahoo.com

Abstract

     Sustainable agriculture in the context of development efforts has to meet production efficiency, sensitivity of ecosystems, appropriate technology, and maintenance of the environment, cultural diversity and satisfaction of the basic needs. In 1965 green revolution succeeded in India to increase the farmer’s income, yield of major crops and made India self-reliant in food production. Now Modern agricultural management practices are changing from assuming homogenous fields to attempting to address field variability by dividing the field into smaller zones and managing these zones separately Precision agriculture has focused on the development of techniques that primarily aid the convention farming system.( ie. tilling the soil to prepare for planting, and heavy reliance on chemical inputs, such as pesticides and fertilizers). However, some farmers, that use conservation tillage practices and Integrated Pest Management strategies can also use precision farming practices, if they are focused on the correct types of solutions A vision for an innovative route of development in agriculture, with the backdrop of WTO regime and ecological crises that threaten to bring down productivity, could truly be derived from the convergence of biotechnology with space and informatics. Precision agriculture embodies such convergence. The small size of farms and fields in most of Indian agriculture limits economic gains from currently available precision farming technology, while the population density, and public concerns for the environment, food safety and animal welfare means that those potential benefits of precision agriculture are being given more attention. While adoption of precision farming in wide concept has been modest in India the potential for using precision agriculture to address environmental, food safety, animal welfare and sustainability problems seems to be attracting political attention in India conditions. It is not impossible to adopt Precision agriculture in India but Research efforts are needed to find out its applicability in the Indian agricultural scenario. Current paper deals with the applicability, opportunity of precision agriculture in India.

Introduction
“Agriculture is the backbone of the Indian economy and the villages are the life lines of growth of India.”
Agriculture is a very important sector for the sustained growth of the Indian economy. About 70 per cent of the rural households and 8 per cent of urban households are still principally dependent on agriculture for employment. Since some three-quarters of the population live in rural areas, a majority of households thus depend principally on this sector. Though, industrialization of the Indian economy has adversely affected the share of agriculture in the GDP, the fact cannot be ignored that India has undergone a series of successful agricultural revolutions-starting with the ‘green’ revolution in wheat and rice in the 1960’s and 1970’s, the ‘white’ revolution in milk to the ‘yellow’ revolution in oilseeds in 1980’s. As a result, India has achieved self-sufficiency in agriculture. Applications of agricultural inputs at uniform rates across the field without due regard to in-field variations in soil fertility and crop conditions does not yield desirable results in terms of crop yield. The management of in-field variability in soil fertility and crop conditions for improving the crop production and minimizing the environmental impact is the crux of precision farming. Geographically, India is widely distributed into several agro-climatic zones, and the information need for the farming systems in these areas is entirely different. Integrating the application of available technologies to realize farmers' goals requires a systems approach to farming. The concept of fully automated villages was a dream till few months back. But the reality has come to true with the rapid growth of information and communication technology in the world scenario. The wired villages and info villages have shown that Information can be disseminated in more useful manner and as farmers need.

Precision agriculture
Precision agriculture is an agricultural system that has the potential of dramatically changing agriculture in this 21st century. Precision agriculture lends it self to most agricultural applications and can be implemented at whatever levels are required. Precision agriculture is based on information technology, which enables the producer to collect information and data for better decision making. Precision agriculture is a pro-active approach that reduces some of the risk and variables common to agriculture. Precision agriculture is more environmentally sound and is and integral part in sustaining natural resources. To better understand the need for an accurate definition of precision agriculture lets look at how precision agriculture is being considered. Precision agriculture is considered a concept, management strategy, and even a philosophy. It is said, “Precision agriculture is a phrase that captures the imagination of many concerned with the production of food, feed, and fiber.” The concept of precision agriculture offers the promise of increasing productivity while decreasing production cost and minimizing environmental impacts. Precision agriculture conjures up images of farmers overcoming the elements with computerized machinery that is precisely controlled via satellites and local sensors and using planning software that accurately predicts crop development. This image has been called the future of agriculture. (Michael Rasher)
 Precision farming is characterised by a number of sophisticated tools that assist in monitoring variation and managing inputs. These include:

• Global Positioning System (GPS) – a referencing device capable of identifying sites within a field;
• Sensors and dataloggers – crop, soil and climate information can be monitored at a high frequency using these technologies;
• Geographic Information Systems (GIS) – maps of these attributes can be generated and analysed using simple browsers or complex models;

Fig. 1 precision farming overview

Differential action – once the factors that are limiting yield are identified, action can be taken to overcome or minimise these constraints. The key components of Precision Farming include capturing the data at an appropriate scale and frequency, interpretation and analysis of that data, and implementation of a management response at an appropriate scale and time. In fact, the key differentiator between the conventional management system and precision agriculture is the application of modern information technologies towards providing, processing and analysing the multi-source data of high spatial and temporal resolution for decision-making and operations in the management of crop production.

GPS role in Precision Agriculture.
Precision Agriculture is doing the right thing, at the right place, at the right time. Knowing the right thing to do may involve all kinds of high tech equipments and fancy statistics or other analysis. Doing the right thing however starts with good managers and good operators doing a good job of using common tools such as planters, fertilizer applicators, harvesters and whatever else might be needed. (Colvin and Kerkman, 1999).

The use of GPS in Agriculture is limited but it is fair to expect wide spread use of GPS in future. Recently a GPS-based crop duster (precision GPS Helicopter), which can spray an area as small as 4 X 4 mtr. is attracting great attention. Some progressive farmers are now beginning to use GPS for recording observations. Such as weed growth, unusual plant stress, colouring and growth conditions, which can then be mapped with a GIS programmes. In the years to come, GPS system role in precision agriculture may help the Indian farmers to harvest the fruits of frontier technologies without compromising the quality of land and produce.

Status of Precision farming in India
Hence, the first thing that comes to mind is that, this system is not for developing countries, especially India, where the farmers are poor, farming is mostly subsistent and the land holding size is small. But, this is far from the truth as this approach has a large potential for improving the agricultural production in developing world. Imagine this situation where a farmer goes to his field with a GPS (Global Positioning System)-guided tractor. The GPS senses the exact location of tractor within the field. It sends signals to the computer fixed on to the tractor, which has a Geographical Information System (GIS), storing the soil nutrient requirement map in it. The GIS, in consultation with a Decision Support System would decide what is the exact requirement of fertilisers for that location. It then commands a variable rate fertiliser applicator, which is again attached with the tractor, to apply the exact dosage at the precise location of farm. But, this is what precision farming means to large growers in the highly developed parts of the globe. To make it clearer, Precision Farming is the system of matching of resource application and agronomic practices with soil attributes and crop requirements since they vary across a field.

Tata Kisan Kendra : The concept of precision farming being implemented by the TKKs has the potential to catapult rural India from the bullock-cart age into the new era of satellites and IT. TCL's extension services, brought to farmers through the TKKs, use remote-sensing technology to analyze soil, inform about crop health, pest attacks and coverage of various crops predicting the final output. This helps farmers adapt quickly to changing conditions. The result: healthier crops, higher yields and enhanced incomes for farmers.

Government organization: Precision Agriculture models are not complete, unless the parameters related to empowerment of the farmers; especially small and marginal farmers are integrated. Now it is the turn of good news to the Indian farming community. Some of the research institutes such as Space Applications Centre (ISRO), M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation, Chennai, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, and Project Directorate of Cropping Systems Research, Modipuram, had started working in this direction and in soon it will help the Indian farmers harvest the fruits of frontier technologies without compromising on the quality of land. According to the Exim Bank officials, though the research and development on PF is currently at a nascent stage in the country, the efforts being put on by the four research institutes were expected to turn the green revolution into an evergreen revolution. In this context, ISRO has also initiated Gramsat project in Orissa. In the line of JDCP, the Gramsat project aims at empowering the people especially the poor and marginalized, by awareness building and access to information and services. Towards this, a network of one-way video and two-way audio Forecasting the yield of mono and multiple crops is being done at NRSA. Acreage estimates and crop inventory is being done during Kharif and Rabi seasons for Rice, which is the major crop grown in our India. Other crops like Banana, Chillies, Cotton, Maize, Sugarcane and Tobacco are also being inventoried. Satellite data can also delineate different crops that are grownin the same area, and an inventory of each of the crops can be done.

Remote sensing and Sensors for PF
Precision farming needs information about mean characteristics of small, relatively homogeneous management zones. This is for Data acquisition of the farms to find the soil, vegetation and other parameters that are amenable for remote sensing. Remote sensing techniques play an important role in precision farming by providing continuous acquired data of agricultural crops. Remote sensors image vegetation, which is growing on different soil types with different water availability, substrate, impact of cultivation, and relief Sensors use for the following applications:

• Soil Properties Sensing: Soil Texture, Structure, and Physical Condition Soil Moisture; Soil Nutrients.
• Crop Sensing: Plant Population; Crop Stress and Nutrient Status.
• Yield Monitoring Systems: Crop Yield; Harvest Swath Width; Crop Moisture:
• Variable Rate Technology Systems: Fertilizer flow; Weed detection, pressure sensors

This study is aided by sensors such as IRS WiFS/LISS-III/PAN and Radarsat ScanSAR. Some of the other studies include: Crop condition assessment, Agricultural drought assessment, Pests and diseases, Land capability and irrigability

Software solution for precision farming

Linux is a good platform for doing this research-oriented work. Much of the analysis can be translated into such mainstream topics as signal processing or multi-dimensional statistics. Some of the best software for exploring software in these topics is the product of government and university research and is ``free''--an important quality in tight budgets. GRASS, xldlas and Santis are three packages which are very helpful in precision farming.

Economics feasibility of Precision Farming in India on agriculture condition
Unlike some new technologies, there is no clear answer as to whether or not PA is economical beneficial. Indian agriculture condition

1. On the one hand there are depletions of ecological foundations of the agro-ecosystems, as reflected in terms of increasing land degradation, depletion of water resources and rising trends of floods, drought and crop pests and diseases. On the other hand, there is imperative socio-economic need to have enhanced productivity per units of land, water and time.
2. At present, 3 ha of rain fed areas produce cereal grain equivalent to that produced in 1 ha. of irrigated. Out of 142 million ha. Net sown areas, 92 million ha. are under rain-fed agriculture in the county.
3. From equity point of view, even the record agricultural production of more than 200 Mt is unable to address food security issue. A close to 60 Mt food grains in the storehouses of Food Corporation of India (FCI) is beyond the affordability and access to the poor and marginalized in many pockets of the country.
4. Globally, there are challenges arising from the Globalization especially the impact of WTO regime on small and marginalized farmers.
5. Some other unforeseen challenges could be anticipated global warming scenario and its possible impact on diverse agro-ecosystems in terms of alterations in traditional crop belts, micro-level perturbations in hydrologic cycle and more uncertain crop-weather interactions etc.

While some studies have reported positive returns to variable-rate technology (VRT), others have reported costs higher than returns or no significant difference in returns.

• Precision Agriculture is a system, not a single piece of equipment or technology. A GPS by it self has little value to farmer. However, when combined with a yield monitor or a VRT, it may have value.
• Returns may be positive if costs can be spread over many applications. Specialized equipment, which has limited uses, has greater risks associated with it than equipment that has many uses. A multi-use tractor will likely pay for itself sooner than a new, single-use machine.
• Precision agriculture may not return on low-valued commodities as it does on high-valued specialty crops i.e. high revenue for grape than the wheat and paddy

GPS controlled tractor guidance systems may affect when and how tractors are operated. Precision farming is useful in many situations in developing countries. Rice, wheat, sugar beet, onion, potato and cotton among the field crops and apple, grape, tea, coffee and oil palm among horticultural crops are perhaps the most relevant. Some have a very high value per acre, making excellent cases for site-specific management. For all these crops, yield mapping is the first step to determine the precise locations of the highest and lowest yield areas of the field. Researchers at Kyoto University recently developed a two-row rice harvester for determining yields on a micro plot basis (Iida et al., 1998).

Subsidies on inputs and outputs and mechanisms that prevent the price system from rationing limited resources are also common. The latter include state-guaranteed crop prices, tariffs, import quotas, export subsidies. Inputs such as water and fossil fuels are usually sold at prices that are well below the real resource cost of their use, which consists not only production costs but also includes scarcity value and costs of pollution. In such cases, the formulation of policies that reflect the real scarcity value of natural resources and penalize pollution and policies such as green payments for farmers adopting techniques that would lower environmental costs can promote the adoption of precision farming technologies (Branden et al., 1994).

Conclusion
As in the US, and Europe the development and adoption of precision agriculture in India is a slow process. The small size of farms and fields in most of Indian agriculture limits economic gains from currently available precision farming technology, while the population density, and public concerns for the environment, food safety and animal welfare means that those potential benefits of precision agriculture are being given more attention. The study on precision agriculture has been initiated in many research institutions. For Instance space Application. Center (ISRO), Ahmedabad has started experiment in the Central Potato Research Station farm at Jalandhar, Punjab to study the role of remote sensing, GIS and GPS in mapping the variability. M.S. Swaminathan foundation, Chennai, in collaboration with NABARD, has adopted a village in Dindugal district of Tamilnadu for variable rate input application. IARI, New Delhi has drawn up plans to do precision agriculture experiments in the institute’s farm. Project Directorate for Cropping Systems Research (PDCSR), Modipuram, and Meerut (UP) has initiated a project on precision agriculture in collaboration with Central Institute of Agriculture Engineering (CIAE), Bhopal.

Reference:

1. Branden, Bagemen, J. and Agkiosobud, C.F., 1994, Incentive-based non-point source pollution abatement in a re-authored clean water act. Water Resource. Japan Agricultural Software Association, 1996. Agriculture-related Software Book (In Japanese). Rakuyu Shobo, Tokyo.
2. C.R. Sukumar HYDERABAD, May 24, 2003 , Precision farming may turn a reality Financial Daily from THE HINDU group of publications.
3. Iida, M., Umeda, M., Kaho, T., Lee, C.K. and Suguri, M., 1998, Measurement of Annual Crops. International Conference on Precision Agriculture, St. Paul. MN. 19-22, July 1998, ASA, CSSA, and SSSA, Madison, WI.
4. Ravi, N. and Jagadeesha, C.J., 2002, Precision Agriculture, Training course on Remote Sensing and GIS Applications in Agriculture, May 27th –7th June, 2002, RRSSC- Bangalore, pp: 225-228.
5. U.K. Shanwad, V.C. Patil, G. S. Dasog, C.P. Mansur and K. C. Shashidhar (2002) Global Positioning System (GPS) in Precision Agriculture The Asian GPS Conference 2002, (October 24 - 25, 2002, New Delhi, India)

Agriculture in India: Issues and Challenges

Informations by...

- Ramaiah Bheenaveni
- Dept. of Sociology,
- Osmania University,
- Hyderabad – 07. 

"Agriculture is the backbone of the Indian Economy"- said Mahatma Gandhi five decades ago. Even today, as we enter the new millennium, the situation is still the same, with almost the entire economy being sustained by agriculture, which is the mainstay of the villages. Not only the economy, but also every one of us looks up to agriculture for our sustenance too.

Significance of Agriculture:
         Although agriculture contributes only 21% of India's GDP, its importance in the country's economic, social, and political fabric goes well beyond this indicator. The rural areas are still home to some 72 percent of the India's 1.1 billion people, a large number of whom are poor. Most of the rural poor depend on rain-fed agriculture and fragile forests for their livelihoods.

       The sharp rise in foodgrain production during India's Green Revolution of the 1970s enabled the country to achieve self-sufficiency in foodgrains and stave off the threat of famine. Agricultural intensification in the 1970s to 1980s saw an increased demand for rural labor that raised rural wages and, together with declining food prices, reduced rural poverty.

        Sustained, although much slower, agricultural growth in the 1990s reduced rural poverty to 26.3 percent by 1999/00. Since then, however, the slowdown in agricultural growth has become a major cause for concern. India's rice yields are one-third of China's and about half of those in Vietnam and Indonesia. With the exception of sugarcane, potato and tea, the same is true for most other agricultural commodities.

       The Government of India places high priority on reducing poverty by raising agricultural productivity. However, bold action from policymakers will be required to shift away from the existing subsidy-based regime that is no longer sustainable, to build a solid foundation for a highly productive, internationally competitive, and diversified agricultural sector.

 Issues and Challenges
         It is here the challenge arises considering the implementation of the technology at various levels in the Global community. The need of the hour is not application of the technology but the adoption of appropriate technology, which would suit the particular level of the global community. In India, the farming practices are too haphazard and non-scientific and hence need some forethought before implementing any new technology.

        Applications of agricultural inputs at uniform rates across the field without due regard to in-field variations in soil fertility and crop conditions does not yield desirable results in terms of crop yield. The management of in-field variability in soil fertility and crop conditions for improving the crop production and minimizing the environmental impact is the crux of precision farming.
        Thus, the information on spatial variability in soil fertility status and crop conditions is a pre-requisite for adoption of precision farming. Space technology including global positioning system (GPS) and GIS holds good promise in deriving information on soil attributes and crop yield, and allows monitoring seasonally- variable soil and crop characteristics, namely soil moisture, crop-phenology, growth, evapotranspiration, nutrient deficiency, crop disease, and weed and insect infestation, which, in turn, help in optimizing inputs and maximizing crop yield and income. Though widely adopted in developed countries, the adoption of precision farming in India is yet to take a firm ground primarily due to its unique pattern of land holdings, poor infrastructure, lack of farmers' inclination to take risk, socio-economic and demographic conditions.

Factors Contribution to Decline of Agriculture:

     Slow Down in Agricultural and Rural Non-Farm Growth: Both the poorest as well as the more prosperous    Green Revolution' states of Punjab, Haryana, Andhra Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh have recently witnessed a slow-down in agricultural growth and it ultimately lead for farmer's suicide. Some of the factors hampering the revival of growth are:

• Poor composition of public expenditures: Public spending on agricultural subsidies is crowding out productivity-enhancing investments such as agricultural research and extension, as well as investments in rural infrastructure, and the health and education of the rural people. In 1999/2000, agricultural subsidies amounted to 3 percent of GDP and were over 7 times the public investments in the sector.

• Over-regulation of domestic agricultural trade: While economic and trade reforms in the 1990s helped to improve the incentive framework, over-regulation of domestic trade has increased costs, price risks and uncertainty, undermining the sector's competitiveness.

• Government interventions in labor, land, and credit markets: More rapid growth of the rural non-farm sector is constrained by government interventions in factor markets -- labor, land, and credit -- and in output markets, such as the small-scale reservation of enterprises.

• Inadequate infrastructure and services in rural areas. Infrastructure is also a significant factor in the process of development but country like our rural Bharat has not posses the infrastructure such as roads, electricity, fertilizer and pesticides availability which caused the vulnerable damage to the growth of agriculture.

Weak Framework for Sustainable Water Management and Irrigation:

Inequitable allocation of water: Many states lack the incentives, policy, regulatory, and institutional framework for the efficient, sustainable, and equitable allocation of water.

Deteriorating irrigation infrastructure: Public spending in irrigation is spread over many uncompleted projects. In addition, existing infrastructure has rapidly deteriorated as operations and maintenance is given lower priority.

Inadequate Access to Land and Finance:
Stringent land regulations discourage rural investments: While land distribution has become less skewed, land policy and regulations to increase security of tenure (including restrictions or bans on renting land or converting it to other uses) have had the unintended effect of reducing access by the landless and discouraging rural investments.

Computerization of land records has brought to light institutional weaknesses: State government initiatives to computerize land records have reduced transaction costs and increased transparency, but also brought to light institutional weaknesses.

Rural poor have little access to credit: While India has a wide network of rural finance institutions, many of the rural poor remain excluded, due to inefficiencies in the formal finance institutions, the weak regulatory framework, high transaction costs, and risks associated with lending to agriculture.

Weak Natural Resources Management: One quarter of India's population depends on forests for at least part of their livelihoods.
A purely conservation approach to forests is ineffective: Experience in India shows that a purely conservation approach to natural resources management does not work effectively and does little to reduce poverty.

Weak resource rights for forest communities: The forest sector is also faced with weak resource rights and economic incentives for communities, an inefficient legal framework and participatory management, and poor access to markets.

Weak delivery of basic services in rural areas:
Low bureaucratic accountability and inefficient use of public funds: Despite large expenditures in rural development, a highly centralized bureaucracy with low accountability and inefficient use of public funds limit their impact on poverty. In 1992, India amended its Constitution to create three tiers of democratically elected rural local governments bringing governance down to the villages. However, the transfer of authority, funds, and functionaries to these local bodies is progressing slowly, in part due to political vested interests. The poor are not empowered to contribute to shaping public programs or to hold local governments accountable.

 Measures Needed Areas:

1. Enhancing agricultural productivity, competitiveness, and rural growth

Enhancing productivity: Creating a more productive, internationally competitive and diversified agricultural sector would require a shift in public expenditures away from subsidies towards productivity enhancing investments. Second it will require removing the restrictions on domestic private trade to improve the investment climate and meet expanding market opportunities. Third, the agricultural research and extension systems need to be strengthened to improve access to productivity enhancing technologies. The diverse conditions across India suggest the importance of regionally differentiated strategies, with a strong focus on the lagging states.
Improving Water Resource and Irrigation/Drainage Management: Increase in multi-sectoral competition for water highlights the need to formulate water policies and unbundle water resources management from irrigation service delivery. Other key priorities include: (i) modernizing Irrigation and Drainage Departments to integrate the participation of farmers and other agencies in irrigation management; (ii) improving cost recovery; (iii) rationalizing public expenditures, with priority to completing schemes with the highest returns; and (iv) allocating sufficient resources for operations and maintenance for the sustainability of investments.
Strengthening rural non-farm sector growth: Rising incomes are fueling demand for higher-value fresh and processed agricultural products in domestic markets and globally, which open new opportunities for agricultural diversification to higher value products (e.g. horticulture, livestock), agro-processing and related services. The government needs to shift its role from direct intervention and overregulation to creating the enabling environment for private sector participation and competition for agribusiness and more broadly, the rural non-farm sector growth. Improving the rural investment climate includes removing trade controls, rationalizing labor regulations and the tax regime (i.e. adoption of the value added tax system), and improving access to credit and key infrastructure (e.g. roads, electricity, ports, markets).

2. Improving access to assets and sustainable natural resource use

Balancing poverty reduction and conservation priorities: Finding win-win combinations for conservation and poverty reduction will be critical to sustainable natural resource management. This will involve addressing legal, policy and institutional constraints to devolving resource rights, and transferring responsibilities to local communities.

Improving access to land: States can build on the growing consensus to reform land policy, particularly land tenancy policy and land administration system. States that do not have tenancy restrictions can provide useful lessons in this regard. Over the longer term, a more holistic approach to land administration policies, regulations and institutions is necessary to ensure tenure security, reduce costs, and ensure fairness and sustainability of the system.

Improving access to rural finance: It would require improving the performance of regional rural banks and rural credit cooperatives by enhancing regulatory oversight, removing government control and ownership, and strengthening the legal framework for loan recovery and the use of land as collateral. It would also involve creating an enabling environment for the development of micro-finance institutions in rural areas.

3. Strengthening institutions for the poor and promoting rural livelihood

Promoting Community-Based Rural Development: State Government efforts in scaling up livelihood and community-driven development approaches will be critical to build social capital in the poorest areas as well as to expand savings mobilization, promote productive investments, income generating opportunities and sustainable natural resource management. Direct support to self-help groups, village committees, user's associations, savings and loans groups and others can provide the initial 'push' to move organizations to higher level and access to new economic opportunities. Moreover, social mobilization and particularly the empowerment of women's groups, through increased capacity for collective action will provide communities with greater "voice" and bargaining power in dealing with the private sector, markets and financial services.
Strengthening Accountability for Service Delivery: As decentralization efforts are pursued and local governments are given more prominence in the basic service delivery, the establishment of accountability mechanisms becomes critical. Local governments' capacity to identify local priorities through participatory budgeting and planning needs to be strengthened. This, in turn, would improve the rural investment climate, facilitating the involvement of the private sector, creating employment opportunities and linkages between farm and non-form sectors

References:

1. Bottelier, Pieter What India (2007) : "Can Learn from China and Vice Versa", China & World Economy, Volume 15, Number 3, May-June , pp. 52-69(18)

2. Schuh, G.E. (2002): Developing country interests in WTO agricultural policy. Political economy of international trade law: essays in honor of Robert E. Hudec / ed. by D.L.M. Kennedy and J.D. Southwick. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press, p. 435-449

3. David Rindos (1984) : "The Origins of Agriculture: An Evolutionary Perspective"
Academic Press,

4. Kulshreshtha, S. (1996): "Indian agriculture and GATT and WTO: Some Reflections - India and WTO" : Udhayam Offset, Madras

5. Aggarwal G.C (1995) : "Fertilizer and irrigation management for energy conservation in crop production" : Fuel and Energy Abstracts, Volume 36, Number 5, , pp. 383-383(1), Elsevier Publisher

6. Society of American Foresters (1997) Agriculture and Forestry in China; Journal of Forestry, Volume 15, Number 8 - 1 December , pp. 1014-1016(3)

ERODE

 Erode District is a western district of the state of Tamil Nadu, India, with Erode as its headquarters. Until the year 1996, Erode district was called as Periyar District.

Erode District was a part of Coimbatore District until September 17, 1979. Mathematician Ramanujan and social reformer Periyar were from here.

Erode district had a population of 22,59,608 as of 2011. It is 46.25% urbanised as per Census 2001.^[3] The district has a literacy rate of 72.96% and is on the rise.

 Visiting places in Erode:

Bannari Mariamman Koil of Erode

This temple is situated on the western side of Erode and is about 10 kms from Bhavani Sagar. The Goddess Mariamman here is very famous and attracts thousands of devotees. The annual festival of this temple is held in the month of Adi (August-September) and large numbers of people come here during this time. The fire walk by the devotees is very thrilling here.

Bhavani town of Erode

Bhavani town is situated at the convergence of the river Cauvery. Bhavani is one of its major tributaries. At this convergence, the Sangameswarar temple is situated. It is also known as the `Thriveni of South India`. This is one of the pilgrim centres of Erode and is also a significant picnic centre. Here, Lord Sangameswara with his spouse Vedanayaki is the presiding deity.

There is an ivory cradle in this temple of Erode, which is said to be presented by William Garraw, collector of the Coimbatore and Salem districts of the colonial period. As per the legends, it is said that once he was directed by the Goddess Vedanayaki to immediately vacate the building in which he was staying. He did so obeying the goddess and immediately after vacating, the building collapsed. So, he offered the ivory cradle to show his gratitude. It can be seen even today with the collector`s signature on it. The Bhavani Sagar Dam here is also visited by lots of pilgrims. One can also see a swimming pool and a park here. Bhavani is known the world over for its blankets with floral designs.

Kodumudi temple of Erode

This is an important temple in Erode district. This place is situated 40 kms from Erode. The Trinity of the Hindu faith Siva, Vishnu and Brahma here is the unique feature of this temple. Their shrines can be found in a single temple complex here only. Here, the name of Siva is Muchukundeswarar and Veera Narayana Perumal is that of Vishnu.

Chennimalai of Erode

This place is situated about 30 kms from Erode. Here, one can see a famous temple dedicated to Lord Muruga on the top of Chennimalai Mountain. Here, the rare forms of Muruga called `Agni Jather`, with two faces and eight arms and `Gourapeyar`, with four faces and eight arms, as hunter with a single face and six arms can be seen. Initially, the presiding deity had the idol of Subramanya with six faces. After it was damaged, a Dandayuthapani idol like the one at Palani has been installed as the presiding deity. It is an important handloom-weaving centre in Tamil Nadu.

Kangeyam of Erode

This temple is situated about 40 kms from Erode. A famous Muruga temple is located here. This place was once well known for bullocks called Kangeyam Kalai.

There is a modern Dhyana Mandapam, which is situated on the Muthur Road. This is situated about 10 kms from Erode and is called Kuttappalayam. This meditation hill was dedicated to Sri Aurobindo and the Mother of Pondicherry. This mandapam is located amidst a spacious 5 acre land which is being developed as a beautiful garden. The exact replica of the Sri Aurobindo and Mother samadhi found in Pondicherry can be seen inside the mandapam. Here, group meditation is conducted from 9.00 a.m. to 12.00 noon on every month on the 2nd Sunday. This attracts large number of people from far and near.

Dharapuram Siva Temple of Erode

Dharapuram is situated about 70 kms from Erode. There is an old Siva temple located here on the northern banks of river Amaravathi. The temple contains Lingam and Devi shrines. A separate shrine for Bhairava is also found here.

There is another Siva temple on the southern side, which is quite older than this one. It contains several inscriptions. The Dhakshinamurthi in the niche here is unlike the usual one. The idols of this temple are beautifully carved.

Some other important places of tourist attraction in Erode are the Thindal Malai Murugan temple, Pariyur Amman temple, Sivanmalai Arthra Kapaleeswarar temple, Kooduthurai, Kodiveri, Varattuppallam, Kunderippallam and the upper dams. All these places are interlinked by buses.
 

Geography

The district is bounded by Chamarajanagar district of Karnataka to the north, and by Kaveri River to the east. Across the Kaveri lies Salem, Namakkal and Karur districts. Tirupur District lies immediately to the south, and Coimbatore and the Nilgiris district lies to the west. Erode District is landlocked and is situated at between 10 36” and 11 58” north latitude and between 76 49” and 77 58” east longitude.

The district comprises a long undulating plain, sloping gently towards the Kaveri river in the south-east. Three major tributaries of river Kaveri, the Bhavani, Noyyal and Amaravati, run across the long stretch of mountains in the north. Other significant rivers are Palar in the north and Vatamalaikarai odai and Uppar rivers in the south. The Palar constitutes the boundary between Erode district and Karnataka in the north. The Bhavanisagar dam and Kodiveri dam provide storage facilities and numerous canals along with these rivers provide proper drainage and facilities for irrigation in the district.

Bhavani River

Bhavani rises in the Western Ghats of Silent Valley National Park in Palakkad District of Kerala. It receives the Siruvani River which has the second tastiest water in the world, a perennial stream of Coimbatore District, and gets reinforced by the Kundah river before entering Erode District in Sathyamangalam. Bhavani is more or less a perennial river fed mostly by the southwest monsoon. The northeast monsoon also supplements its water resources. This river runs for over hundred miles through Erode District, traversing Bhavani and Gobichettipalayam taluks. It feeds the Bhavanisagar reservoir, which takes an easterly course after Sathyamangalam taluk. Between Sathyamangalam and Gobichettipalayam lies the Kodiveri Dam, a mini dam constructed for agricultural purposes. Then it flows through Gobichettipalayam and Bhavani taluks before it ultimately joins Kaveri in the island of Bhavani, Tamil Nadu, near Erode, with a holistic tributary river of Amutha Nathi, hence called Tiriveni Sangamam. The place where Bhavani joins with Kaveri River is famous for Sri Sangameshwara Temple of Lord Shiva, where according to the Hindu customs people perform the last rights for deceased near and dears.

Kaveri river in Erode district

Kaveri rises in the Western Ghats of Kodagu (Coorg) District, in Karnataka, and is joined by many small tributaries. It runs eastward through Karnataka, and at Hogenakal fall takes a sharp turn, east to south. Before reaching this point, it is joined by its main tributary, the Kabini River. From here it runs towards the southeast, forming the boundary between Bhavani Taluk of Erode District and Tiruchengode Taluk of the neighbouring Namakkal District. The Bhavani River joins the Kaveri at the town of Bhavani.

Noyyal River

Noyyal river is noted for its capricious nature. This is fed mostly by the southwest monsoon but the northeast monsoon brings freshes, and this very often results in floods. In spite of its unpredictable character, the river helps to irrigate considerable areas in Palladam taluk of Coimbatore District and Kangeyam taluk of Erode District.But due to the chemical waste came from tirupur dying factories this river water cannot used for the agriculture.

Amaravati River

Amaravati river rises in the Travancore region of Kerala, and enters Erode District from Udumalaippettai taluk in Coimbatore District. The river flows through Dharapuram and Kangeyam taluk before it joins Kaveri in Karur District.

Hills

Western Ghats traverses across the district giving rise to small hill locks namely:

• Chennimalai
• Pachaimalai and Pavazhamalai
• Perumalmalai
• Thalavumalai
• Lakkapuram Hills
• kaithamalai

Tourist and Pilgrim Centres

Important Tourist Centres

• Bhavanisagar Dam, Bhavanisagar
• Kodiveri Dam, Gobichettipalayam
• Bhavani Kooduthurai, Bhavani
• Periyar Memorial House, Erode
• Erode Museum, Erode
• Birds sanctuary, Vellode, Erode
• Cavuey Padakuthurai (Boat House), Kodumudi

Important Pilgrim Centres

• Bhavani Sangameswarar Temple, Bhavani
• Pariyur Kondathu Kaliamman Temple, Amarapaneeswarar Temple and Adinarayana Swamy Temple, Pariyur, Gobichettipalayam
• Bannari Mariamman Temple, Bannari
• Periya Mariamman Temple, Erode
• Thindal Murugan Temple, Erode
• Cinna Amman and Periya Amman Temple in Mugasi Anuman palli {Vellode-Arachalur via}
• Balamurugan Temple, Pachaimalai and Muthukumaraswamy Temple, Pavalamalai, Gobichettipalayam
• Chennimalai Murugan Temple, Chennimalai
• Magudeswarar Temple, Kodumudi
• Velayuthaswami Temple and Sri Ponkaliamman Temple, Sivagiri
• Vijayapuriamman Temple, Vijayamangalam
• Jain Temple, Vijayamangalam
• Gurunathaswamy Temple, Anthiyur
• Badhrakali Amman Temple, Anthiyur
• Malai Karuppusamy Temple, Anthiyur Colony

Climate

The climate is mostly dry and characterised by good rainfall. Unlike nearby Coimbatore district, Erode District has dry weather throughout the year except during the monsoons. The Palghat Gap in Western Ghats, which has a moderating effect on the climate of Coimbatore district, does not help in bringing down the dry climate in this area. The cool moist wind that gushes out of the west coast through Palghat gap loses its coolness and becomes dry by the time it crosses Coimbatore district and reaches Erode.

Generally the first two months of the year are pleasant, but in March the temperature begins to rise, which persists till the end of May. The highest temperatures are normally recorded during May. The scanty showers during this period do not provide much relief from the oppressive heat. However, there is an improvement in the climate during the June–August period. During the pre-monsoon period, the temperature reverses its trend. By September the sky gets heavily overcast, although the rains pour down. The northeast monsoon sets in vigorously only during October–November, and by December the rains disappear, rendering the climate clear and cold.

Administration

Erode District is separated into 2 revenue divisions

• Erode
• Gobichettipalayam

Erode District consists of 5 Taluks

• Bhavani
• Erode
• Gobichettipalayam
• Perundurai
• Sathyamangalam

Erode District consists of 6 Municipalities

Selection Grade Municipality:

• Gobichettipalayam

Grade I Municipality:

• Sathyamangalam

Grade II Municipality:

• Bhavani
• Perundurai
• Punjai Puliampatti

Grade III Municipality:

• Kasipalayam, Erode

Erode District is divided between 3 Parliamentary Constituencies

• Erode Parliamentary Constituency
• Nilgiris Parliamentary Constituency
• Tirupur Parliamentary Constituency

Erode District consists of 8 Assembly Constituencies

• Anthiyur
• Bhavani
• Bhavani Sagar
• Erode East
• Erode West
• Gobichettipalayam
• Modakurichi
• Perundurai

Economy

Agriculture is the most important income source of this district. Paddy, Plantain, Groundnut, cotton, turmeric, coconut and sugarcane are some of the agricultural products. With 43% share, the district is the top turmeric producer in Tamil Nadu.[1]. Erode is also known as "The Turmeric City". Erode District is an important market centre for turmeric, a spice commonly used in curries. Turmeric is also used as a fabric dye. The turmeric is collected from Erode District and from adjoining districts of Tamil Nadu and Karnataka, including Mysore. Erode district is also the leading producer of plantain, coconuts and white silk in Tamil Nadu.

Fabrics, like rugs, made in Erode are famous in India.

Gobichettipalayam is well known for its white silk, plantain and coconut production. The country's first automated silk reeling unit is in Gobichettipalayam.

Erode is also well known for handloom, powerloom textile products and ready-made garments and hence called the powerloom city of India. Products such as cotton sarees, bed spreads, carpets, lungies, printed fabrics, towels, dhotis are marketed there. In mid-2005, Bhavani Jamakkalam (Bhavani Bedsheets) was registered as a Geographical Indication by the Government of India. Nowadays more and more spinning mills which produce yarn for the power loom are set up in and around the town of Erode. Chennimalai is also famous for textiles.

Turmeric powder, used extensively in Indian cuisine

Punjai Puliampatti has the second largest weekly shandy in Tamil Nadu and it is one of the leading tobacco producers in Tamil Nadu. Anthiyur shandy and Modachur shandy are famous for cattle.^{[citation needed]}

Transportation

Erode railway junction.

The transportation system in the district is already well developed. Erode, being one of the prominent trading centres in the state, is well connected with all modern means of transport except air transport. The district is accessible by both road and rail from the state capital Chennai and other district headquarters.

Rail Transport

Erode junction was a important railway station built by the British to connect the west coast of India to the east coast of India. There is a diesel locomotive shed and an electric locomotive shed for Erode Junction. It is one of the most important railway stations in India. The station code is ED. It has state of the art technology in electrification and was the first electrified link from Chennai with broad gauge conversion. Erode Junction has the distinction of being the Third cleanest railway junction in India, after Bhopal Habibganj Railway Station (Bhopal) and Secunderabad Railway Station (Hyderabad) in India. Both Electric and Diesel Locomotive Sheds have been ISO certified. It also serves as the hub for water filling facilities, food provision and toilet cleaning to all long distance trains that run via Erode. Erode Junction is the junction point between the trains passing towards West/East of Tamil Nadu and Kerala, Karnataka with 4 platforms and it one of the busiest railway junctions where many trains passing through. The station is well connected by buses round the clock. There are Five local railway stations in the city.

Road Transport

Tamil Nadu State Transport Corporation Coimbatore div-II headquartered at Erode originally called as Jeeva Transport Corporation(JTC) Ltd services the inter and intra city routes. The Erode division of the TNSTC services the district's road transport needs with a string of local and mofussil (out-of-town) services. The State Express Bus Corporation (SETC) operates express services to Chennai, Coimbatore, Mysore, Cochin, Thrissur, Salem, Bangalore, Pondicherry, Nagapattinam, Vellore, Tirunelveli, and Tirupati. One can get buses from Erode to almost any part of the state. Erode bus stand is the second largest in Tamil Nadu in terms of area after CMBT, Chennai.

TNSTC - ERODE

The Tamil Nadu State Transport Corporation (TNSTC) has a divisional headquarters at Erode. Originally called as Jeeva Transport Corporation (JTC), it came into being by bifurcation of the Cheran Transport Corporation (headquartered at Coimbatore). It started functioning from 1 April 1983, with the principal area of operation in the Erode District, parts of Tirupur, Namakkal, Salem and Karur Districts. It was renamed as Tamil Nadu State Transport Corporation, Erode Limited (Coimbatore Division-II) on 1 July 1997. The fleet strength as on 31 March 2005 was 1218 during the year 2003-2005. It has many depots at various places in the districts are Erode-1, Erode-2, Erode-3, Bhavani, Gobichettipalayam, Anthiyur, Perundurai, Nambiyur, Sathyamangalam, Kavindapadi, Thalavadi, Karur and proposed depots at Kodumudi and Chennimalai.

Distances from Erode

Sl no	Town	Distance (km)
1	Anthiyur	40
2	Bhavani	15
3	Chennampatti	50
4	Chennimalai	35
5	Gobichettipalayam	35
6	Perundurai	20
7	Kodumudi	40
8	Sathyamangalam	65
9	Bhavanisagar	65
10	Thalavadi	120
11	Sivagiri	35
12	Nambiyur	65
13	Arachalur	25
14	Hasanur	125

Highways

National Highways

• NH-47 connecting Chennai – Salem – Coimbatore – Cochin – Kanyakumari passes via Bhavani, Chithode and Perundurai
• NH-209 connecting Bangalore – Coimbatore – Dindigul passes via Sathyamangalam

Proposed Highways

• NH 67-A, which splits from Karur to Erode, and reaches Mysore through Gobichettipalayam, Sathyamangalam and Chamarajanagar and to Bangalore through Anthiyur & Kanakapura.
• NH 209-A, connecting Sathyamangalam – Gobichettipalayam – Erode – Karur - Dindigul.

State Highways

• SH-15 connecting Erode – Gobichettipalayam – Sathyamangalam – Mettupalayam - Ooty
• SH-20 connecting Erode – Bhavani – Mettur Dam – Mecheri – Thoppur (om NH-7)
• SH-37 connecting Mettur – Erode – Kangeyam – Dharapuram – Palani
• SH-79 connecting Erode – Tiruchengode – Rasipuram – Attur
• SH-81 connecting Gobichettipalayam – Uthukuli – Kangeyam – Dharapuram
• SH-82 connecting Sathyamangalam – Athani – Bhavani
• SH-84 connecting Erode – Kodumudi – Karur
• SH-84A connecting Erode – Modakurichi – Moolanur
• SH-96 connecting Erode – Perundurai – Chennimalai – Kangeyam

Air Transport

• Coimbatore International Airport, which is 85 km (53 mi) by road
• Salem Airport, which is 65 km by road

Other modes Navigable waterways are available at five places in the district.

Demographics

According to the 2011 census Erode district has a population of 2,259,608,^[4] roughly equal to the nation of Latvia^[5] or the US state of New Mexico.^[6] This gives it a ranking of 200th in India (out of a total of 640).^[4] The district has a population density of 397 inhabitants per square kilometre (1,030 /sq mi) .^[4] Its population growth rate over the decade 2001-2011 was 12.05 %.^[4] Erode has a sex ratio of 992 females for every 1000 males,^[4] and a literacy rate of 72.96 %.^[4]

Communication

The district is also served by an extensive Postal, Telegraph and Telephone networks. It is connected to the rest of the state by subscriber trunk dialing system (STD). The telephone network within the city is also expanding rapidly.

• Postal Divisions : 2 (Erode, Gobichettipalayam)
• Head Post offices : 3 (Erode, Bhavani and Gobichettipalayam)
• Other Post offices : 319 (including extra departmental sub-post offices and telegraph offices)
• Post and Telegraph offices : 144
• Post offices with phone facilities : 144

The district has a vast coverage by mobile phone operators.Since most of its people live in rural areas it is far more economical for the people as well as the mobile operators to build the infrastructure for mobile phone communications.

Education

Erode district has several facilities for higher education including a Medical College, fifteen Engineering colleges along with 18 Arts and Science Colleges. It has two educational districts, Gobichettipalyam and Erode.